Jane A. Smith and Kenneth M. Boyd, eds. Lives in the Balance: The
Ethics or Using Animals in Biomedical Research (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1991).
This study was researched and written by a working party
convened by Britain's Institute of Medical Ethics consisting of eighteen
scientists, medical researchers, and philosophers.
David DeGrazia and Andrew Rowan "Pain, Suffering and Anxiety in Animals
and Humans," Theoretical Medicine 12 (1991):193-211.
Patrick Bateson, "Assessment of Pain in Animals," Animal Behavior
42 (1991):827-39.
Margaret Rose and David Adams, "Evidence for Pain and Suffering in Other
Animals," in Gill Langley, ed., Animal Experimentation: The Consensus
Changes (New York: Chapman and Hall, 1989), pp. 42-71.
Key:
"+" denotes a confirmed comparison between the
animals in question and normal humans "-" denotes a
disconfirmed comparison between the animals in question and normal humans
"?" denotes that insufficient data are available to
evaluate the comparison
INVERTEBRATES
VERTEBRATES
Earth- worms
Insects
Cepha- lopods
Fish
Herps
Birds
Mammals
Nociceptors present
?
-
?
- /
?
- /
?
+
+
Central nervous system
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
Nociceptors connected to central nervous system
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
Endogenous opiods present
+
+
?
+
+
+
+
Responses modified by analgesics
?
?
?
?
?
+
+
Response to damaging stimuli analogous to humans'
-
-
+
+
+
+
+
Note: The cells under fish and herps regarding the presence of
nociceptors are yellow for the following reasons. Rose and Adams conclude that
"Evidence supports the existence of nociception in all vertebrates" (p. 49),
suggesting that a "+" belongs here. But they base this on
avoidance behavior rather than identification of nociceptors, which as Smith and
Boyd note, have been sought without success in these animals.
